In response to ecosystem degradation from rapid economic development, China began investing heavily in protecting and restoring natural capital starting in 2000. We report on China's first national ecosystem assessment (2000-2010), designed to quantify and help manage change in ecosystem services, including food production, carbon sequestration, soil retention, sandstorm prevention, water retention, flood mitigation, and provision of habitat for biodiversity. Overall, ecosystem services improved from 2000 to 2010, apart from habitat provision. China's national conservation policies contributed significantly to the increases in those ecosystem services. Copyright © 2016, American Association for the Advancement of Science.

生态系统服务有着极高甚至无法计量的价值,与人类福祉关系及其密切。充分评价生态系统服务价值现已成为生态系统资产化管理、生态补偿、生态服务有偿使用等政策执行的迫切需求。本文基于扩展的劳动价值论原理,主要采用单位面积生态系统价值当量因子的方法,对中国生态系统提供的11种生态服务类型价值进行核算,研究表明：①中国各种生态系统年提供总服务价值量为38.10万亿元。就生态系统而言,森林提供的总服务价值最高,占总价值的46.00%;其次是水域和草地,分别占总价值的21.16%和19.68%;②就生态系统服务类别而言,调节功能服务价值最高,占71.31%,支持服务占19.01%,供给服务占5.87%;文化服务占3.81%;③生态系统服务价值在年内随生长季节变化,中国生态系统在5-9月期间提供的生态服务价值较高,而在11-2月期间提供的生态服务价值较低;④生态系统服务单位面积价值最高的地区主要分布在南方和东北地区,在总体趋势上从东南向西北逐渐降低;⑤对中国不同地区人均生态服务价值和人均GDP进行对比发现,2010年中国人均生态价值量为2.84万元,人均GDP为2.99万元,总体而言中国人均GDP和人均生态服务价值接近1∶1,这表明中国生态系统服务价值相对社会经济价值的高度稀缺性,尤其在经济和人口密集的区域,这种相对稀缺性更为突出。

Ecosystem services with an extremely high economic value impact human well-being significantly. The practices of ecological system asset management,ecological compensation,and paid use of ecological system assets are urging to fully evaluate ecosystem service value. In this paper,the economic values of 11 types of ecosystem services are accounted based on the expansion of labor value theory and using the method of equivalent value factor per unit ecosystem area. We found that the total value of ecosystem services in China is 38.10×1012 CNY,of which,forest ecosystem services value account for 46.00%,followed by aquatorium and grass ecosystem service value accounting for 21.16% and 19.68%,respectively. In terms of the economic value derived from different types of ecosystem services,support services accounted for 71.31%,regulation services accounted for 19.01%,provision services accounted for 5.87% and cultural services for 3.81%. The value of ecosystem services vary seasonally during a year,the value of ecosystem services during May to September is higher; from October to April the value of ecosystem services is relatively low. The ecosystems per unit area in southern and northeastern China supply higher ecosystem services values; the overall trend of the spatial distribution of ecosystem services value per unit of ecosystem area is gradual reduction from southeast to northwest. With comparison between per capita ecosystem service value and per capita GDP in different regions of China in 2010,the per capita ecosystem service value in China is 2.84×104 CNY,close to per capita GDP,which fully demonstrates the relative scarcity of China's ecosystem service,especially in economically developed and densely populated areas.

As one of the important ecological assets, ecosystems provide human with ecological products and services, which is the foundation of human survival and social-economic sustainable development. Gross ecosystem product (GEP) is the value of products and services provided by ecosystems, which is an important part of ecological asset. Taking Yunnan Province as a case study, we used an accounting system to analyze the connotation and relevance of ecological assets and GEP in 2010. The evaluation results showed that the condition of ecological asset was overall good in 2010. Forest, shrub and grassland were mainly of good quality level; farmland was mainly of poor quality, while biodiversity had excellent quality level. Total worth of GEP was 2 986.95 billion yuan in 2010, in which, direct products contributed 413.27 billion yuan, and indirect services value amounted to 2 573.68 billion yuan. The results showed that the ecological asset accounting system works well in reflecting the contribution of ecological asset to local social and economic development, and can be used to assess the ecological asset conditions. Thus, the ecological asset accounting system can be used in ecosystem management and governmental performance appraisal.

海南热带雨林国家公园拥有我国最具代表性、连片面积最大的热带雨林,生态产品丰富,在开展国家公园生态产品价值实现机制探索上具有得天独厚的优势。本研究基于《陆地生态系统生产总值(GEP)核算技术指南》框架,构建符合热带雨林国家公园特色的GEP核算体系,对2019年海南热带雨林国家公园GEP进行核算。结果表明: 2019年,海南热带雨林国家公园GEP为2045.13亿元,单位面积GEP为0.46亿元·km^-2。其中,物质产品价值为48.50亿元,占国家公园GEP总量的2.4%;生态系统调节服务价值为1688.91亿元,占82.6%;文化服务价值为307.72亿元,占15.0%。从不同生态系统类型来看,以山地雨林、低地雨林、落叶季雨林、热带云雾林等为代表的热带雨林生态系统的单位面积价值量远高于人工林及其他生态系统,表明热带雨林生态系统在提供生态系统服务功能方面具有显著作用。此外,本研究还基于国家公园GEP核算结果,提出进一步探索生态产品价值实现路径和实现机制的相关建议。

合理的生态保护空间管控可以有效权衡社会经济发展与生态保护之间的矛盾。重要生态保护空间是区域中最具有保护价值的优质生态产品区,对维持区域生态安全与可持续发展具有重要意义。本文以快速城市化的长三角地区为研究区,利用CASA、RUSLE等生态模型、市场价值法、影子工程法等价值估算方法,估算分析长三角2000—2017年生态系统生产总值（GEP）时空变化格局,采用STARS突变检验,结合自然保护区,尝试提出基于GEP的区域重要生态保护空间识别方法,结果表明：①长三角地区GEP总体呈现上升趋势,从2000年4.61万亿元增长到2017年7.12万亿元,分别为同年GDP的2.06、0.36倍。②三大生态系统服务中,调节服务占比最大,分别占2000年和2017年GEP总值的89.1%、64.9%;供给服务和文化服务2000年占GEP总值比例分别为9.60%、1.33%,2017年分别提升至20.83%、14.31%。③GEP空间分布呈南高北低,平原和沿海区域的单位面积GEP偏低,而山地丘陵地区较高。④长三角地区重要生态保护空间占国土空间面积的12%,其中,江苏、安徽、浙江和上海分别占国土空间面积的11%、12%、13%、13%,与生态保护红线具有较好的空间耦合。

Reasonable ecological protection space can optimize the ecological environment in a certain region, improve ecological function, maintain ecological security, and achieve sustainable development goals. The important ecological protection space is the area with the highest protection value of high-quality ecological products in the region. Taking the rapidly urbanizing Yangtze River Delta region as the research area, this study used CASA and RUSLE ecological models, market value method, and shadow engineering method to estimate and analyze the spatial and temporal changes of gross ecosystem product (GEP) in the Yangtze River Delta region from 2000 to 2017. The sequential t-test analysis of regime shift (STARS) mutation test, combined with nature reserves, identifies important ecological protection spaces in the region. The results show that: (1) The GEP in the Yangtze River Delta region shows an upward trend, from 4.61 trillion yuan in 2000 to 7.12 trillion yuan in 2017, which are 2.06 and 0.36 times of the GDP in the same year. (2) Among the three main ecosystem services, the regulation services are the largest, accounting for 89.1% and 64.9% of the total GEP in 2000 and 2017, respectively. The proportion of supply services and cultural services in the total GEP has increased. (3) The spatial distribution of GEP is high in the south and low in the north, and the unit GEP in the plain and coastal areas is low while that in the mountainous and hilly areas is high. (4) Important ecological protection space in the Yangtze River Delta region accounts for 12% of the territorial space area, of which Jiangsu, Anhui, Zhejiang, and Shanghai account for 11%, 12%, 13% and 13% of the territorial space area, respectively, and have healthy spatial coupling with the ecological protection red line.

以湖南省为研究区,采用250 m×250 m空间分辨率的MODIS-NDVI数据,结合相应时间段的气象数据,使用改进的CASA模型,模拟并分析该区域2000-2013年间的植被NPP的时空变化特征,并借助统计分析方法对不同土地覆盖类型中植被NPP的变化趋势及其显著性,NPP与气候因子的相关性进行量化分析.结果表明:① 该区域的净初级生产量年际变化特征明显,年净初级生产量分布在41.62~125.40 Tg C/yr之间,平均值为86.34 Tg C/yr,总体来看,14年间湖南省植被净初级生产量呈波动减少趋势,年际减少趋势为2.70 Tg C/yr;② NPP空间分布差异较大,基本特点是西高东低,南高北低,从西南向东北呈逐渐递减趋势,其中,各植被分区的NPP有明显差异;③ 2000-2013年,湖南省植被NPP呈极显著增加(slope >0,p < 0.01),显著增加(slope > 0,0.01 ≤ p < 0.05),无明显变化(p ≥ 0.05),极显著减少(slope < 0,p < 0.01)和显著减少(slope < 0,0.01 ≤ p < 0.05)的区域分别占总面积的比例为5.40%,2.02%,61.64%,16.79%和14.15%.植被NPP变化趋势总体上显示为减少的趋势,而不同土地覆盖类型的植被NPP变化趋势及显著性存在较大差异,其中草地的NPP变化趋势最为显著,接着依次是森林,其他土地,建设用地和农田;④ 分析不同土地覆盖类型的植被NPP对气候因子的响应,发现NPP与降水量之间的相关关系强于其与温度的相关关系.

As a critical air pollutant, PM is proved to be associated with numerous adverse health impacts and pose serious challenges to human life. This situation is especially important for China as the most populous and one of the heaviest PM polluted country in the world. However, health burden estimations reported for China in previous studies may be biased due to the usage of PM concentrations at a coarsely spatial resolution, as well as the ignorance of the spatial discrepancies of parameters (e.g. respiratory rate) employed in the exposure-response function. This study therefore utilized a hybrid remote sensing-geostatistical approach to refine PM concentrations at 1 km resolution across mainland China from 2013 to 2017. Meanwhile, nationwide exposure parameters were for the first time introduced to weight the integrated exposure response (IER) function to calculate and spatially reallocate the corresponding PM-attributable premature deaths at 1 km resolution. Results showed that annually averaged PM concentrations in mainland China decreased by 39.5%, from 59.1 μg/m in 2013 to 35.8 μg/m in 2017. Subsequently, PM attributable premature deaths reduced 12.6%, from 1.20 million (95% CI: 0.57; 1.71) in 2013 to 1.05 million (95% CI: 0.44; 1.44) in 2017. This declining trend was found in most parts of China except some areas in Xinjiang, Jilin, and Heilongjiang provinces. As a result, 214,821 (95% CI: 96,675; 302,897) life were saved with an estimated monetary value of US$ 210.14 billion (2011 values). However, it has to be acknowledged that, the central and northern China within priority areas of air pollution control were still experiencing high numbers of premature deaths due to the severe PM pollution and high-density population. But more worrying than these priority areas are those Harbin-Changchun Metropolitan Region, City Belt in Central Henan and Yangtze-Huaihe City Belt in non-priority areas, which also have been seriously suffering PM attributable premature deaths over 28, 000 cases per year. In conclusion, despite the huge gain in life-saving effects in China over the past five years with the help of air pollution intervention policy, future work on cleaner air and better human health is still strongly needed, especially in non-priority areas of air pollution control.Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

对稻田资源的生态服务价值重视不足是稻田保护工作的最大缺陷,导致了稻田资源流失严重。本文以苏州市水稻田为例,运用造林成本法、瑞典碳税法、制氧工业成本法、替代成本法、影子工程法、当量因子法等方法对稻田生态系统各项服务价值进行了测算。结果表明,苏州市域稻田生态系统服务净总价值量为60785.18×10⁵元,单位面积净价值量为73111.84 元/hm²。其中,正面总价值量为68485.93×10⁵元,环境效应负总价值量为7700.75×10⁵元,前者为后者的8.89 倍。从稻田生态系统服务价值各部分的比例看,其实物生产价值远远低于其生态经济价值,表明了作为人工湿地生态系统,稻田生态服务价值对社会经济的可持续发展具有十分重要的作用。研究结果将有助于确定稻田保护经济补偿标准,为各级政府出台相关政策提供思路和依据

The wetland ecosystem services in arid and semi-arid regions are very important to local environment and livelihood of people. Located in an arid region of northwestern China, Wuliangsuhai is the largest wetland in the valley of the Yellow River. Based on field investigation and statistic data available, a frame of wetland ecosystem services in Wuliangsuhai and methods to evaluate their values are constructed. According to their features, two kinds of ecosystem services are identified: product supply services of direct values and environmental and life support services of indirect values. The main technique for valuing this ecological function of the wetland is the production function approach, and valuing the non-market environmental services through the use of surrogate market valuation. Results show that the direct values including provision of ecosystem products, and recreation and tourism are 0.45×108 RMB, mainly the values of reed production. The indirect values in terms of water resource regulating, wildlife habitat provision, environmental purification, air ingredients controlling, and culture services are 6.68×108 RMB, which is 14.84 times higher than direct values. From above estimated values, it can be concluded that the wetland ecosystem services have great ecological and economic values.The values of wetland ecosystem services in Wuliangsuhai are ranked as follows: regulating air ingredients > water resources regulating > wildlife habitat provision > products provision > environmental purification > recreation and tourism. The function of regulating air ingredients is of the highest value, which indicates that this function is very important in wetlands dominated by emergent macrophytes. The value of regulating water resources is 26.08 percent of the total ecosystem values, and the percentage was lower compared to results achieved in similar researches in other regions. It is indicated that shortage of water resource and eutrophication caused by non-point pollution from Hetao irrigation district are major problems facing Wuliangsuhai to fulfill wetland ecosystem services.The methods applied in the paper are convenient and widely used, but the criteria and principles of evaluation especially for wildlife habitat provision and culture services need to be improved in further studies.

博斯腾湖是中国最大的内陆淡水湖，为水资源匮乏的干旱地区提供了重要的生态系统服务。开展博斯腾湖生态系统最终服务（final ecosystem services）价值评估能用直观的经济数据揭示博斯腾湖对人类效益的直接贡献，为博斯腾湖生态保护创建生态补偿等经济驱动机制。本文在分析博斯腾湖区域水资源特征及其与社会经济发展相互作用的基础上，建立了博斯腾湖生态系统最终服务评估指标体系，并以2012年为基础年，综合运用市场价值法、替代成本法、个体旅行费用模型法和条件价值法评估了博斯腾湖提供给人类的生态经济价值。结果表明：博斯腾湖生态系统服务总价值为91.89×10⁸元·a^-1，其中径流调节价值和休闲娱乐价值分别为77.60×10⁸元和8.44×10⁸元，两项服务价值占总价值的93.63%；对所评价的9项生态系统最终服务按价值量排序，依次为径流调节＞休闲娱乐＞释氧＞原材料生产＞固碳＞淡水产品＞非使用价值＞水资源供给＞水质净化。评估结果用直观的数字揭示了博斯腾湖维持区域社会经济发展的作用，不仅能提高管理者和公众的湿地认知，也为管理部门制定相应的生态补偿制度提供了重要依据。评估方法和评估参数为完善博斯腾湖生态系统服务及生态特征动态监测指标体系，研究不同水资源配置方式对人类福祉的影响，协调水资源开发过程中生态、经济、社会之间的矛盾提供了重要方向。

As the biggest inland freshwater lake in China, Bosten Lake provides important ecosystem services to the arid area that is poor in water resources. Ecosystem services valuation of Bosten Lake can reveal the direct contribution of Bosten Lake to human welfare using visible economic data, thus creating economic incentives (<em>e.g</em>. ecological compensation) to protect Bosten Lake. In this paper, we established the final ecosystem services valuation system based on the interactions between regional water resources and socioeconomic conditions. We then evaluated the ecological economic value from nine final ecosystem services provided by Bosten Lake in 2012 using market price method, replacement cost method, individual travel cost method, and contingent valuation method. The total estimated value of the ecosystem services from Bosten Lake was 91.89&times;10⁸ Yuan RMB in 2012, among which the values of runoff regulation, and recreation and tourism were 77.60&times;10⁸ and 8.44&times;10⁸ Yuan, respectively, accounting for 93.63% of the total value evaluated. According to the valuation, the nine final ecosystem services were ranked in a descending order as: runoff regulation, recreation and tourism, oxygen release, raw material products, carbon sequestration, aquatic products, non-use value, water resources provision, and water purification. The evaluation results reflect the multiple contributions of Bosten Lake to the sustainability of regional socioeconomic development, which will help increase awareness on the multiple ecosystem services from Bosten Lake, and inform managers on creating ecological compensation mechanisms. The evaluation methods and evaluation parameters in this study will also provide guidance to establish monitoring programs to study the influence of alternative ways of water resources allocation on human wellbeing, and provide important directions on coordinating multiple contradictories among ecology, economy, and society in the processes of water resources development.

\n Exposure to ambient fine particulate matter (PM\n 2.5\n ) is a major global health concern. Quantitative estimates of attributable mortality are based on disease-specific hazard ratio models that incorporate risk information from multiple PM\n 2.5\n sources (outdoor and indoor air pollution from use of solid fuels and secondhand and active smoking), requiring assumptions about equivalent exposure and toxicity. We relax these contentious assumptions by constructing a PM\n 2.5\n -mortality hazard ratio function based only on cohort studies of outdoor air pollution that covers the global exposure range. We modeled the shape of the association between PM\n 2.5\n and nonaccidental mortality using data from 41 cohorts from 16 countries—the Global Exposure Mortality Model (GEMM). We then constructed GEMMs for five specific causes of death examined by the global burden of disease (GBD). The GEMM predicts 8.9 million [95% confidence interval (CI): 7.5–10.3] deaths in 2015, a figure 30% larger than that predicted by the sum of deaths among the five specific causes (6.9; 95% CI: 4.9–8.5) and 120% larger than the risk function used in the GBD (4.0; 95% CI: 3.3–4.8). Differences between the GEMM and GBD risk functions are larger for a 20% reduction in concentrations, with the GEMM predicting 220% higher excess deaths. These results suggest that PM\n 2.5\n exposure may be related to additional causes of death than the five considered by the GBD and that incorporation of risk information from other, nonoutdoor, particle sources leads to underestimation of disease burden, especially at higher concentrations.\n

以1995年、2000年、2005年和2010年四期Landsat TM影像解译数据和社会经济数据为基础,借助ArcGIS分析手段,探讨了期间湖南省的土地利用转型情况。借鉴全球生态系统服务价值的最新研究成果,结合中国实际情况对生态系统服务价值系数进行了修订,进而对湖南省土地利用转型导致的生态系统服务价值变化进行了测度和分析。结果表明：1995-2010年,湖南省土地利用发生明显变化,主要表现为城乡建设用地增加及耕地和草地面积的减少;1995-2000年,湖南省生态系统服务价值略有提升,由8807.8亿元变为8829.5亿元,增加0.25%。但自2000年以后,生态系统服务价值持续下降,由2000年的8829.5亿元降至2010年的8770.9亿元,下降0.66%。最后,提出保障湖南省生态系统服务功能的土地利用优化配置建议。

With the rapid development of Chinese economy, many negative effects of land use transitions under the pressure of rapid urbanization on local ecological system and environment have occurred. This paper examines the dynamic patterns of land use transitions in Hunan province, using high-resolution Landsat TM (Thematic Mapper) data in 1995, 2000, 2005 and 2010, and socio-economic data from both research institutes and government departments, and assesses the changes of ecosystem services value (ESV) by drawing a connection between the observed land use dynamics and the evaluation of ESV, based on the latest research of Costanza et al. and some revisions adapted to the situation of China. The outcomes indicated that, during the period from 1995 to 2010, the land use changed significantly, characterized by the increase of construction land and the decrease of cultivated land and grassland; ESV of the study area decreased by 0.42%, from 880.78 to 877.09 billion RMB, due to the losses of large quantities of ecological land to construction land. Then, some of the major implications for improving the land use of Hunan province were discussed. The authors argue that it is fundamental to meet the demand of construction land for socio-economic development, meanwhile, to protect regional ecosystem services function and maintain its stability; only in this way Hunan province may realize the sustainable use of ecological resources in the process of rapid urbanization, as well as the integration of economic, social and ecological benefits.